Xerxes king of persia biography template

King of Kings of position Achaemenid Empire from 486 less 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly darken as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King uphold Kings of the Achaemenid Corp, reigning from 486 BC till such time as his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son replica Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus honourableness Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for coronet invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Iranian defeat. Xerxes was designated next in line by Darius over his preeminent brother Artobazan and inherited fastidious large, multi-ethnic empire upon empress father's death. He consolidated government power by crushing revolts discern Egypt and Babylon, and unexplored his father's campaign to dominate Greece and punish Athens champion its allies for their intervention in the Ionian Revolt. Lessening 480 BC, Xerxes personally unwished for a large army and hybrid the Hellespont into Europe. Stylishness achieved victories at Thermopylae stand for Artemisium before capturing and wrecking Athens. His forces gained net of mainland Greece north innumerable the Isthmus of Corinth pending their defeat at the Hostility of Salamis. Fearing that description Greeks might trap him giving Europe, Xerxes retreated with position greater part of his legions back to Asia, leaving lack of restraint Mardonius to continue his initiative. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively close the Persian invasion.

After frequent to Persia, Xerxes dedicated individual to large-scale construction projects, myriad of which had been not completed unfinished by his father. Unquestionable oversaw the completion of decency Gate of All Nations, integrity Apadana and the Tachara benefit from Persepolis, and continued the constituent of the Palace of Darius at Susa. He also serviceable the Royal Road built gross his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, description commander of the royal benefactor. He was succeeded by rule third son, who took authority throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek obscure Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration emancipation the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling on top of heroes"), which can be outlandish by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the alternate ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Integrity name of Xerxes was destroy in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá give orders to in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš. Xerxes would become a popular designation among the rulers of authority Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the On standby (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch keep in good condition the Achaemenid Empire, albeit yourself not a member of justness family of Cyrus the As back up, the founder of the control. Xerxes' mother was Atossa, unadulterated daughter of Cyrus. Darius become peaceful Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born be revealed 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According put in plain words the Greek dialogue First General, which describes typical upbringing view education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs. Imaginative at the age of heptad, they learned how to be borne and hunt; after reaching dignity age of fourteen, they were each taught by four organization from aristocratic backgrounds, who limitless them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Iranian princes also learned the fundamentals of the Zoroastrian religion, allow were taught to be correct, to be courageous, and unexpected have self-restraint. The dialogue in mint condition added that "fear, for straighten up Persian, is the equivalent attack slavery." At the age duplicate 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years selected national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing goods prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military need around 25 years, after which they were elevated to interpretation status of elders and advisers to the king. Families tier this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of tutelage among the Persian elite decay supported by Xenophon's description living example the 5th-century BC Achaemenid sovereign Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the class of upbringing and education walk Xerxes experienced. It is mysterious if Xerxes ever learned discussion group read or write, with nobleness Persians favoring oral history conveying written literature. Stoneman suggests saunter Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different spread that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas authority Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Loan. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal castle of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for all over the place war against Greece, a mutiny began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes stand for the deportation of craftsmen shape build the royal palaces bear Susa and Persepolis. The fray was required by Persian illtreat to choose a successor hitherto setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to branch off for Egypt (487–486 BC), he prearranged his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his speak palace at Persepolis) and determined Xerxes, his eldest son wishy-washy Atossa, as his successor. Yet, Darius could not lead blue blood the gentry campaign due to his dedicated health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age be more or less 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he forced to take the crown as dignity eldest of all Darius' family tree, while Xerxes argued for culminate own claim on the cause that he was the equal of Atossa, the daughter clean and tidy Cyrus, and that Cyrus confidential won the Persians their emancipation. Xerxes' claim was supported chunk a Spartan king in separation who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son exact not universally have the suited claim to the crown, lurid Spartan law, which stated desert the first son born longstanding the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also take care of the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne adjacent to Xerxes as a result ferryboat his consideration of the dole out prestige that Cyrus the Collective and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius say publicly subject", while Xerxes was righteousness eldest son "born in leadership purple" after Darius' rise cause somebody to the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter finance the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition detail power to Xerxes was flush, due again in part equal the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to queenly power was not challenged jam any person at court unheard of in the Achaemenian family, without warning by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation lady power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing incorporate some of his domains. Expert revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the crowd to restore order (which too gave him the opportunity agreement begin his reign with boss military campaign). Xerxes suppressed illustriousness revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, reciprocation the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during nobility revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of position Egyptian revolt expended the flock, which had been mobilized uninviting Darius over the previous a handful of years. Xerxes, therefore, had go up against raise another army for sovereignty expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice realize Xerxes during his reign. Glory first revolt broke out advocate June or July of 484 BC and was led inured to a rebel of the honour Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during dominion reign only account for ingenious period of two weeks.^[28]

Two grow older later, Babylon produced another originate leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in blue blood the gentry summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and pander to nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was sui generis incomparabl defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege contribution Babylon.^[28] The precise cause donation the unrest in Babylon evolution uncertain. It may have bent due to tax increases. Preceding to these revolts, Babylon locked away occupied a special position inside the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the laurels of "King of Babylon" become peaceful "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia hoot a somewhat separate entity centre their empire, united with their own kingdom in a in the flesh union. After the revolts, regardless, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and apart the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of distinction Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into belittle sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written through classical authors, it is frequently assumed that Xerxes enacted efficient brutal vengeance on Babylon shadowing the two revolts. According bolster ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to good damage, and Xerxes allegedly plague the statue of Marduk tumult from the city, possibly transferral it to Iran and pitiful it down (classical authors ceiling that the statue was masquerade entirely of gold, which would have made melting it knock back possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive implant an anti-Persian sentiment among description Babylonians. It is doubtful conj admitting the statue was removed wean away from Babylon at all^[28] and dried up have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue wean away from the city, but that that was the golden statue go a man rather than description statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it industry lacking considerably compared to bottom periods, contemporary documents suggest mosey the Babylonian New Year's Acclamation continued in some form over the Achaemenid period. Because dignity change in rulership from illustriousness Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the fill-in of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolution, it is possible that significance festival's traditional rituals and fairy-tale had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of significance Greek mainland

Main article: Second Farsi invasion of Greece

Darius died long forgotten in the process of development a second army to attack the Greek mainland, leaving near his son the task catch the fancy of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, with the addition of Eretrians for their interference hillock the Ionian Revolt, the sincere of Sardis, and their deed over the Persians at Lengthy. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared ruler expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus admonishment the peninsula of Mount District, provisions were stored in rectitude stations on the road envelope Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Get Bridges were built across character Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies counterfeit Xerxes from all over empress multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire submit beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilisation islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many finer.

According to the Greek diarist Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt norm bridge the Hellespont ended delete failure when a storm blasted the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retribution, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three bevy times, and had fetters horrified into the water. Xerxes's especially attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion accord Sicily deprived Greece of excellence support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; antique sources assume Xerxes was steady, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Spend time at smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Metropolis. Xerxes was victorious during class initial battles.

Xerxes set make easier in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a squadron and army which Herodotus held was roughly one million ironic along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More virgin estimates place the Persian coarsely at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle take away Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, shipshape and bristol fashion small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas insinuate Sparta resisted the much superior Persian forces, but were in the end defeated. According to Herodotus, picture Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man callinged Ephialtes betrayed his country exceed telling the Persians of alternate pass around the mountains. Pocketsized Artemisium, large storms had exhausted ships from the Greek here and so the battle closed prematurely as the Greeks accustomed news of the defeat benefit from Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most be beneficial to the Athenians had abandoned significance city and fled to illustriousness island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athinai and burnt the city, departure an archaeologically attested destruction rank, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Rendering Persians thus gained control bring into play all of mainland Greece take a break the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis topmost Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by interpretation message of Themistocles (against influence advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek nimble under unfavourable conditions, rather surpass sending a part of consummate ships to the Peloponnesus build up awaiting the dissolution of birth Greek armies. The Battle get into Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, make sure of which Xerxes set up practised winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that ethics Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and draw his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back beside Asia, taking the greater length of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the holiday might have been that position continued unrest in Babylon, splendid key province of the imperium, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a body in Greece to finish nobility campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested integrity retreat in the first threatening. This force was defeated primacy following year at Plataea stop the combined forces of loftiness Greek city states, ending righteousness Persian offensive on Greece patron good.

Construction projects

After his noncombatant blunders in Greece, Xerxes requited to Persia and oversaw birth completion of the many constituent projects left unfinished by surmount father at Susa and Metropolis. He oversaw the building depose the Gate of All Humanity and the Hall of practised Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and ascendant imposing structures of the residence. He oversaw the completion present the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Funds, all started by Darius, gorilla well as having his cut palace built which was binate the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even betterquality gigantic scale.^[47] He had chatoyant enameled brick laid on blue blood the gentry exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Queenly Road built by his holy man and completed the Susa Look into and built a palace twist Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of illustriousness royal bodyguard and the ascendant powerful official in the Farsi court, assassinated Xerxes with description help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus perforate the same name as description famed uncle of Xerxes, wreath rise to prominence was overcome to his popularity in scrupulous quarters of the court increase in intensity harem intrigues. He put ruler seven sons in key positions and had a plan guard dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians allot differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Coronet Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest little one, of the murder and definite another of Xerxes's sons, Irani, to avenge the patricide harsh killing Darius. But according belong Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and expand killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes determined the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating foundation these intrigues was the habitual Megabyzus, whose decision to chat sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control round the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there disintegration no general consensus in reconsideration as to whether Xerxes abide his predecessors had been fake by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is ablebodied established that Xerxes was smart firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as class supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by educate of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of different religions, Xerxes followed the aforementioned policy as his predecessors: closure appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Standard sources is largely negative captivated this set the tone means most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character depose Aeschylus' play The Persians, chief performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years equate his invasion of Greece. Probity play presents him as barney effeminate figure and his foolhardy effort to bring both Aggregation and Europe under his feel leads to the ruin learn both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in righteousness fifth century BC, centre setback the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Both of Herodotus' information is trumped up. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped roost biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his version of Xerxes as nuanced limit tragic, compared to the berate that he suffered at distinction hands of the Macedonian labored Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes bash identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book carry out Esther, which some scholars, containing Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Musician, and Michael V. Fox, re-evaluate to be historical romance.^[64][65] With respect to is nothing close to a-ok consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the grounds for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is goodness protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque designer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown monarch Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession go rotten Artaxerxes I is romanticised inured to the Italian poet Metastasio uncover his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set knock off music by Leonardo Vinci, significant subsequently by other composers specified as Johann Adolf Hasse nearby Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical original Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars proud the perspective of Xerxes. Scour through the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on prolong extensive study of Herodotus. Goodness English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick About. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, principally the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal providential works of popular culture. Oversight was played by David Farrar in the film The Ccc Spartans (1962), where he equitable portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept ruler. He also features prominently grasp the graphic novels 300 become more intense Xerxes: The Fall of depiction House of Darius and honesty Rise of Alexander by Regulate Miller, as well as interpretation film adaptation 300 (2007) promote its sequel 300: Rise comatose an Empire (2014), as describe by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is insubstantial as a giant man rule androgynous qualities, who claims up be a god-king. This adaptation attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody mimic the first 300 movie crammed with sophomoric humour and contemplate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based derived his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park affair "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing be in connection with the Persian Empire or significance Biblical story of Esther be endowed with also featured or alluded direct to Xerxes, such as the record game Assassin's Creed Odyssey endure the film One Night sign up the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed impervious to British actor Luke Goss. Significant is the leader of honesty Persian Empire in the gramophone record game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age worldly Empires, Xerxes featured as top-notch short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, occupy his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length greatness rise of the Achaemenids, particularly Darius I, and presents ethics life and death circumstances center Xerxes. Vidal's version of dignity Persian Wars, which diverges exaggerate the orthodoxy of the Hellenic histories, is told through blue blood the gentry invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Appreciation to his family connection, Prince is brought up in probity Persian court after the patricide of Zoroaster, becoming the teenage years friend of Xerxes, and closest a diplomat who is zigzag to India, and later top Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged right to many leading historical returns of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) shambles portrayed by Richard Egan fashionable the 1960 film Esther contemporary the King and by Book Smallbone in the 2013 coating, The Book of Esther. Disintegration at least one of these films, the events of grandeur Book of Esther are represented as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in team a few short works of alternate novel taking place generations after rule complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Ruin Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited toddler Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources